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Dokumentation
om Jesus utanför Nya testamentet
In English:
Documentation about Jesus outside
the New Testament
Titeln på
anförda verk anges på engelska eftersom många av dem
är sökbara på nätet med engelsk titel.
Del 1: Dokumentation om den sociala miljön
Pontius
Pilatus, som var vid Jesu rättegång, dokumenteras av:
– Filon från Alexandria (ca 20 f.Kr. – 50 e.Kr.) i Embassy
to Gaius (299–303).
– Pilatusstenen
– Ignatius från Antiokia (e.Kr. 30–107) i Epistle to
the Smyrnaeans.
– Josefus (e.Kr. 37–99) i The Jewish War (2.9) and Antiquities
från the Jews (18.2, 18.3).
– Tacitus (ca e.Kr. 56–120) i Annals (15.44).
– Phlegon (100–talet e.Kr.) i Olympiad, citerad av Eusebius
i Ecclesiastical History (2.7).
– Celsus (ca e.Kr. 140–180) i The True Word, citerad av Origenes
i Against Celsus (2.34).
– Justinus Martyren (ca e.Kr. 100–165) i First Apology.
– Tertullianus us (e.Kr. 160–245) i The Apology and On the
Resurrection från the Flesh.
– Origeneses från Alexandria (e.Kr. 185–253) i Against
Celsus (2.34).
Johannes
Döparen halshöggs, vilket dokumenteras av:
– Josefus (e.Kr. 37–99) i Antiquities från the Jews
(18.5).
Herodes Antipas
(Herodes Tetrarken), känd för att ha halshuggit Johannes Döparen,
dokumenteras av:
– Josefus (e.Kr. 37–99) i Antiquities från the Jews
(18.5).
– Ignatius från Antiokia (e.Kr. 30–107) i Epistle to
the Smyrnaeans.
– Justinus Martyren (ca e.Kr. 100–165) i Dialogue with Trypho.
– Kos-inskriptionen
– Delos-inskriptionen
– Mynt
Familjen
Sergius Paulus, känd genom den Romrske prokonsul som aposteln Paulus
träffade, dokumenteras av:
– Inskriptionen CIL 631545
– Inskriptionen IGR 3 930
– Antiokiainskriptionen
– Plinius den äldre (ca e.Kr. 24–79) i The Natural History
(18.90, 2.113).
Kajafas översteprästen, som var en motståndare till Jesus,
dokumenteras av:
– Josefus (e.Kr. 37–99) i Antiquities från the Jews
(18.33–35, 18.95–97).
– Ossuariet
– Irenaeus från Lyon (e.Kr. 127–203) i Against Heresies
(2.16).
– Tertullianus us (e.Kr. 160–245) i On the Resurrection från
the Flesh.
– Hippolytus från Rom (e.Kr. 170–236) i Against Noetus.
Lysianias
Tetrarken från Lukasevangeliet dokumenteras av:
– Lysanias-inskriptionen (Abilene-inskriptionen)
Att korsfästelse
offer begravdes i enskilda gravkammare i Judeen dokumenteras av:
– Den genomborrade foten som tillhörde den judiske mannen Yohanan
Ben Hagalgol.
Herodes den
Förste (Kung Herodes, Herodes den Store), känd för att
ha mördat barnen i Betlehem, dokumenteras av:
– Filon från Alexandria (ca 20 BC – 50 e.Kr.) i Embassy
to Gaius.
– Strabonn (ca 64 BC–24 e.Kr.) i Geography (16.2).
– Nicolaus från Damaskus (ca 64 BC – 4 e.Kr.) i Life
från Augustus.
– Josefus (e.Kr. 37–99) i The Jewish War (1.284, 1.422, 1.401)
and Antiquities från the Jews (14.470–481, 14.403, 15.50–56,
15.247–251, 15.222–236, 16.392–394, 17.182–187,
16.290).
– Tacitus (ca e.Kr. 56–120) i Histories (5.9, 5.11).
– Justinus Martyren (ca e.Kr. 100–165) i First Apology and
Dialogue with Trypho.
– Cassius Dio (ca 165 – ca 235) i Roman History (59:8).
– Macrobius (5th century e.Kr.) i Saturnalia (2.4.11).
– Mynt
– Kos-inskriptionen
– Delos-inskriptionen
– Inskriptionen på ett Amforafragment
Notera: Herodes den förste var en mordisk tyrann som mördade
sina egna söner, Alexander och Aristobulus och Antipater, eftersom
han såg dem som ett hot mot kronan, enligt Josefus i Antiquities
från the Jews (17.1–13). Herodes mördade också
sin egen fru, kusiner och andra människor som han såg som ett
hot.
Herodes palatser dokumenteras av:
– Kvarlämningarna vid Caesarea Maritima
– Kvarlämningarn av en lobby
– Kvarlämningarna i Jerusalem
Folkräkningen
dokumenteras av:
– Augustus Caesar (63 BC – 14 e.Kr.) i Rev Gestae Divi Augusti.
– Justinus Martyren (ca e.Kr. 100–165) i First Apology and
Dialogue with Trypho.
– Klemens från Alexandria (ca e.Kr. 153–217) i Stromata
(1.21).
– Tertullianus us (e.Kr. 160–245) i Against Marcion (4.19,
4.7).
– Origeneses från Alexandria (e.Kr. 185–253) i Against
Celsus (1.57).
– Orosius (ca e.Kr. 375 – 420) i Histories against the Pagans
(7:13).
Notera: Tertullianus us och Justinus Martyren dokumenterade att folkräkningen
var i de Romrska arkiven, som var intakta på den tiden.
Folkräkningen
bekräftas indirekt genom:
– Gaius Vibius Maximus (aktiv i ca 104 e.Kr.) i Edictum praefecti
Aegypti CA Vibii Maximi
(P. Lond. III, 904) om den Romrska folkräkningen i Egypten.
– Tacitus (ca e.Kr. 56–120) i Annals (6.41) om den Romrska
folkräkningen över Clitaeklanen, som utfördes i ett närliggande
separat rike.
– Thermoutharion (aktiv i ca 48 e.Kr.) i Oxyrhynchus papyrus 255
om den Romrska folkräkningen som krävde att Thermoutharion skulle
återvända till sin hemstad.
– Josefus (e.Kr. 37–99) i Antiquities från the Jews
(18.1) om en Romrsk folkräkning.
–Tivoliinskriptionen där en Romrsk ämbetsman kunde ha
ett ämbete vid två olika tillfällen.
– En Romrsk folkräkning utfördes I den självständiga
staden Apamea, enligt Aemillius Secundus inscription (ILS 2683).
– Regionen Samariien beskattades både av Herodes and Caesar,
enligt Josefus i Antiquities från the Jews (17.11.4).
– Folkräkningarnas skribenter eller nedtecknare dokumenteras
i papyrus fragment (POxy 78, 240, 251, 252, 254, 255, 288, 488).
Quirinius (Cyrenius), som var involverad med Romrska folkräkningar,
dokumenteras av:
– Strabonn (ca 64 BC–24 e.Kr.) i Geography (12.6).
– Augustus Caesar (63 BC – 14 e.Kr.) i Res Gestae Divi Augusti.
– Josefus (e.Kr. 37–99) i Antiquities från the Jews
(17.13.5, 18.1.1, 18.2.1, 18.2.2, 20.5.2) and The Jewish Wars (2.17.8,
7.8.1).
– Tacitus (ca e.Kr. 56–120) i Annals (2.30, 3.22–23,
3.48).
– Suetonius (ca e.Kr. 69–122) i Lives från the Twelve
Caesars, Volume 3: Tiberius.
– Plinius den Äldre (ca e.Kr. 24–79) i The Natural History
(5.23.4)
– Justinus Martyren (ca e.Kr. 100–165) i Dialogue with Trypho.
– Cassius Dio (ca e.Kr. 165–235) i Roman History (54.28).
– Inskriptionenes Latinae Selectae 9502
– Inskriptionenes Latinae Selectae 9503
– Inskriptionenes Latinae Selectae 2683
– Mynt
De Romrska
vägarna som aposteln Paulus använde var:
– Via Sebaste
– Via Ignatia (Via Egnatia)
– Via Taurus
– Via Appia
Bethesdadammen
där Jesus mirakulöst botade den paralyserade mannen dokumenteras
genom:
– Utgrävningen i Jerusalem.
Silodammen
där Jesus mirakulöst botade den blinda mannen dokumenteras genom:
– Finns i Jerusalem.
Erastus stadskassören
som aposteln Paulus mötte dokumenteras av:
– Erastusinskriptionen
Gallio (Novatus),
den Romrske prokonsul som aposteln Paulus möte, dokumenteras av:
– Gallioinskriptionen (Delphiinskriptionen)
– Seneca den Yngre (ca 4 BC – 65 e.Kr.) i ad Gallionem de
Vita Beata (To Gallio on the happy life) och ad Novatvm de Ira (To Novatus
on anger) och Natural Questions.
– Plinius den äldre (ca 23–79 e.Kr.) i The Natural History
(31.33).
– Statius (ca e.Kr. 45 – 96) i Silvae (2.7).
– Tacitus (ca 55–120 e.Kr.) i Annals (16.71, 15.73).
– Cassius Dio (ca 165–235 e.Kr.) i Roman History (62.20).
Notera: Gallios ursprungliga namn var Novatus.
Notera: Seneca den Yngre är bror till Gallio.
Domarstolens
plattform som Gallio använde i Korinth dokumenteras av:
– Ruinerna i Korinth
Del 2: Dokumentation
för apostlarna
Aposteln Petrus dokumenteras av:
– Ignatius från Antiokia (e.Kr. 30–107) i Letter to
the Romans (4.3).
– Papias från Hierapolis (ca e.Kr. 60–140) i Exposition
från the Oracles.
– Irenaeus från Lyons (e.Kr. 127–203) i Against Heresies
(3.1.1)
– Clemens från Alexandria (ca e.Kr. 153–217) i Stromata
(3.4)
– Dionysius av Korinth (d. AD 196) i Letter to Pope Soter.
– Gaius (Caius) Presbytern (d. AD 210) i Disputation with Proclus.
– Tertullianus (e.Kr. 160–245) i Against Marcion (4).
– Hippolytus från Rom (e.Kr. 170–236) i Against Noetus.
– Origenes från Alexandria (185–253) i Against Celsus
(1).
Aposteln
Andreas dokumenteras av:
– Papias från Hierapolis (ca e.Kr. 60–140) i Exposition
från the Oracles.
– Origenes från Alexandria (e.Kr. 185–253) i Commentary
on Genesis, vilket citeras av Eusebius i Ecclesiastical History (3).
Aposteln
Jakob, son till Sebedeus, dokumenteras av:
– Clemens från Alexandria (ca e.Kr. 153–217) i Hypotyposes,
citerad av Eusebius i Ecclesiastical History (2.9).
Aposteln
Johannes dokumenteras av:
– Papias från Hierapolis (ca e.Kr. 60–140) i Exposition
från the Oracles.
– Filon från Cilicia and Rheus Agathopus (00–talet e.Kr.)
i The Martyrdom från Ignatius.
– Justinus Martyren (ca e.Kr. 100–165) i Dialogue with Trypho.
– Irenaeus från Lyons (e.Kr. 127–203) i Against Heresies
(3.3).
– Gaius (Caius) the Presbyter (d. AD 210) i Canon Muratorianus.
– Klemens från Alexandria (ca e.Kr. 153–217) i Stromata
(1).
– Tertullianus (e.Kr. 160–245) i Against Marcion (4).
– Hippolytus från Rom (e.Kr. 170–236) i On Christ and
Antichrist.
– Origenes från Alexandria (e.Kr. 185–253) i Against
Celsus (1).
Aposteln
Filippos dokumenteras av:
– Papias från Hierapolis (ca e.Kr. 60–140) i Exposition
från the Oracles.
– Klemens från Alexandria (ca e.Kr. 153–217) i Stromata
(3).
Aposteln
Bartolomaios dokumenteras av:
– Pantaenus från Alexandria (ca 100–200) i Fragments.
Aposteln
Matteus dokumenteras av:
– Papias från Hierapolis (ca e.Kr. 60–140) i Exposition
från the Oracles.
– Irenaeus från Lyon (e.Kr. 127–203) i Against Heresies
(3).
Aposteln
Tomas dokumenteras av:
– Papias från Hierapolis (ca e.Kr. 60–140) i Exposition
från the Oracles.
– Origenes från Alexandria (e.Kr. 185–253) i Commentary
on Genesis, vilket citeras av Eusebius i Ecclesiastical History (3).
Aposteln
Jakob den Rättfärdige dokumenteras av:
– Josefus (e.Kr. 37–99) i Antiquities från the Jews
(20.9).
– Papias från Hierapolis (ca e.Kr. 60–140) i Exposition
från the Oracles.
– Hegesippos Nazarenus (ca e.Kr. 120–180) i Commentaries on
the Acts från the Church.
Aposteln
Simon Ivraren dokumenteras av:
– Papias från Hierapolis (ca e.Kr. 60–140) i Exposition
från the Oracles.
– Hegesippos Nazarenus (ca e.Kr. 120–180) i Commentaries on
the Acts från the Church.
Aposteln
Taddaios dokumenteras av:
– Papias från Hierapolis (ca e.Kr. 60–140) i Exposition
från the Oracles.
– Hegesippos Nazarenus (ca e.Kr. 120–180) i Commentaries on
the Acts från the Church.
Judas Iskariot
dokumenteras av:
– Papias från Hierapolis (ca e.Kr. 60–140) i Exposition
från the Oracles.
Aposteln
Paulus, även känd som Saul från Tarsus, dokumenteras av:
– Klemens från Rom (ca 35–99 e.Kr.) i Epistles från
First Klemens.
– Ignatius från Antiokia (e.Kr. 30–107) i Letter to
the Romans.
– Polykarpos (e.Kr. 69–155) i Epistle från Polycarp.
– Tertullianus (e.Kr. 160–245) i Against Marcion (4) and On
the Flesh från Christ.
– Irenaeus från Lyons (e.Kr. 127–203) i Against Heresies.
– Gaius (Caius) the Presbyter (d. AD 210) i Canon Muratorianus.
– Dionysius från Korinth (d. AD 196) i Letter to the Roman
Church.
Del 3: Dokumentation
för Jesus Kristus
Att Jesus utförde mirakler dokumenteras av:
– Josefus (e.Kr. 37–99) i Antiquities från the Jews
(18.3).
– Celsus (ca e.Kr. 140–180) i The True Word, vilket citeras
av Origenes i Against Celsus.
– Quadratus från Athen (d. 129, born i 0–talet e.Kr.)
i Letter to Emperor Hadrian, vilket citeras av Eusebius i Ecclesiastical
History (4.3).
– Justinus Martyren (ca e.Kr. 100–165) i First Apology.
– Baraitha Bab, Sanhedrin 43a (100–talet e.Kr., Mishnah, Talmud).
Att Jesus var känd som Messias, gudomlig och Gud kommen som människa
dokumenteras av:
– Josefus (e.Kr. 37–99) i Antiquities från the Jews
(20.9, 18.3).
– Celsus (ca e.Kr. 140–180) i The True Word, vilket citeras
av Origenes i Against Celsus.
– Klemens från Rom (ca 35–99 e.Kr.) i Epistles från
First Clemens.
– Plinius den Yngre (ca e.Kr. 61–114) i Letters (Book 10,
letter 96, letter to Emperor Trajan).
– Justinus Martyren (ca e.Kr. 100–165) i First Apology.
– Akeptous-inskriptionen
– Alexamenos Graffito
– Pibechis (200–talet e.Kr.) i PGM IV (Greek Magical Papyrus
4).
Att Jesus ledde en rörelse dokumenteras av:
– Josefus (e.Kr. 37–99) i Antiquities från the Jews
(18.3).
– Tacitus (ca e.Kr. 56–120) i Annals (15.44).
– Suetonius (ca e.Kr. 69–122) i The Lives från the Twelve
Ceasars.
– Plinius den Yngre (ca e.Kr. 61–114) i Letters (Book 10,
letter 96, letter to Emperor Trajan).
– Lucianus från Samosata (ca e.Kr. 125–180) i The Death
från the Peregrine.
– Galenos från Pergamon (ca e.Kr. 129–216) i De Differentiis
Pulsuum.
– Baraitha Bab, Sanhedrin 43a (100–talet e.Kr., Mishnah, Talmud).
Att Jesus
hade titeln Judarnas konung:
– Mara bar Serapion (aktiv i ca 73 e.Kr.) i Letter to his son Serapion.
Korsfästelsen
av Jesus dokumenteras av:
– Josefus (e.Kr. 37–99) i Antiquities från the Jews
(18.3).
– Ignatius från Antiokia (e.Kr. 30–107) i Epistles to
the Smyrneans.
– Tacitus (ca e.Kr. 56–120) i Annals (15.44).
– Thallus (aktiv i ca 50 e.Kr.) i History, vilket citeras av Julianus
Africanus i Chronography (18.1).
– Polykarpos (e.Kr. 69–155) i Epistle från Polycarp.
– Justinus Martyren (ca e.Kr. 100–165) i First Apology.
– Lucianus från Samosata (ca e.Kr. 125–180) i The Death
från the Peregrine.
– Phlegon (100–talet e.Kr.) i Chronicles, vilket citeras av
Origenes i Against Celsus (2.59).
– Alexamenos Graffito
Den tomma graven av Jesus dokumenteras av:
– Phlegon (100–talet e.Kr.) i Chronicles, vilket citeras av
Origenes i Against Celsus (2.59).
– Justinus Martyren (ca e.Kr. 100–165) i Dialogue with Trypho.
– Tertullianus (e.Kr. 160–245) i De Spectaculis.
Notera: Justinus Martyren och Tertullianus förklarade att fariséerna
anklagade apostlarna för att ha stulit kroppen in på 100–talet
e.Kr., vilket betyder att fariséerna visste att graven var tom.
Att Jesus
uppstod från det döda dokumenteras av:
– Klemens från Rom (ca 35–99 e.Kr.) i Epistles från
First Clemens.
– Ignatius från Antiokia (e.Kr. 30–107) i Epistles to
the Smyrneans.
– Polykarpos (e.Kr. 69–155) i Epistle från Polycarp.
– Justinus Martyren (ca e.Kr. 100–165) i First Apology.
– Klemens från Alexandria (ca e.Kr. 153–217) i Stromata
(6.9) och Hypotyposes, citerad av Eusebius i Ecclesiastical History (2.9).
– Tertullianus (e.Kr. 160–245) i On the Flest från Christ.
– Phlegon (100–talet e.Kr.) i Chronicles, vilket citeras av
Origenes i Against Celsus (2.59).
Jesus Kristus, även känd som Jesus från Nasaret, dokumenteras
av:
– Ignatius från Antiokia (ca e.Kr. 30–107)
– Klemens från Rom (ca 35–99 e.Kr.)
– Josefus (e.Kr. 37–99)
– Tacitus (ca e.Kr. 56–120)
– Papias från Hierapolis (ca e.Kr. 60–140)
– Plinius den yngre (ca e.Kr. 61–114)
– Polykarpos (e.Kr. 69–155)
– Suetonius (ca e.Kr. 69–122)
– Thallus (aktiv i ca 50 e.Kr.)
– Mara bar Serapion (aktiv i ca 73 e.Kr.)
– Didache (00–talet e.Kr.)
– Quadratus från Athen (d.129, född på 00–talet
e.Kr.)
– Phlegon (100–talet e.Kr.)
– Justinus Martyren (ca e.Kr. 100–165)
– Aristos från Pella (ca e.Kr. 100–160)
– Pantaenus från Alexandria (ca e.Kr. 100–200)
– Theophilus från Antiokia (ca e.Kr. 100–180)
– Melitos från Sardes (ca e.Kr. 100–180)
– Lucians från Samosata (ca e.Kr. 125–180)
– Galenos från Pergamon (ca e.Kr. 129–216)
– Irenaeus från Lyons (e.Kr. 127–203)
– Polycrates från Efesos (ca e.Kr. 130–196)
– Athenagoras från Athen (ca e.Kr. 133–190)
– Celsus (ca e.Kr. 140–180)
– Klemens från Alexandria (ca e.Kr. 153–217)
– Tertullianus (e.Kr. 160–245)
– Hippolytus från Rom (e.Kr. 170–236)
– Origenes från Alexandria (e.Kr. 185–253)
– Sankt Barnabas (100–talet e.Kr.)
– Aristides från Athens (100–talet e.Kr.)
– Claudius Apollinaris (100–talet e.Kr.)
– Apollonius från Efesos (100–talet e.Kr.)
– Rhodos (100–talet e.Kr.)
– Gaius (Caius) Presbytern (d. AD 210, born i 100–talet e.Kr.)
– Serapion från Antiokia (d. 211 AD, born i 100–talet
e.Kr.)
– Eusebius från Caesarea (ca e.Kr. 260–339)
– Pibechis (200–talet e.Kr.)
– Alexamenos Graffito
– Akeptous Inskriptionen
– Inscription calling Jesus for help on Christian ossuaries.
Del 4: Kedjan av vittnesbörd
Kedjan av vittnesbörd:
– Ignatius från Antiokia (e.Kr. 30–107) var en lärjunge
till Aposteln Johannes (ca e.Kr. 6–100).
– Klemens från Rom (ca e.Kr. 35–99) kände personligen
Aposteln Peter (ca e.Kr. 1–68).
– Papias från Hierapolis (ca e.Kr. 60–140) var en lärjunge
till Aposteln Johannes (ca e.Kr. 6–100) och Aposteln Filippos (e.Kr.
3–80).
– Polykarpos från Smyrna (e.Kr. 69–155) var en lärjunge
till Aposteln Johannes (ca e.Kr. 6–100).
– Filon från Cilicien and Rheus Agathopus (00–talet
e.Kr.) var följeslagare till Ignatius från Antiokia (e.Kr.
30–107), som var en lärjunge till Aposteln Johannes (ca e.Kr.
6–100).
– Pantaenus från Alexandria (ca e.Kr. 100–200) var en
lärjunge till Areopagiten Dionysios (e.Kr. 9–117), som var
en lärjunge till Aposteln Paul (e.Kr. 8–68).
– Irenaeus från Lyons (e.Kr. 127–203) var en lärjunge
till Polykarpos från Smyrna (e.Kr. 69–155), som var en lärjunge
till Aposteln Johannes (ca e.Kr. 6–100).
– Justinus Martyren (ca e.Kr. 100–165) var vän med Irenaeus
från Lyons (e.Kr. 127–203) och var en lärjunge till Polykarpos
från Smyrna (e.Kr. 69–155), som var en lärjunge till
Aposteln Johannes (ca e.Kr. 6–100).
– Klemens från Alexandria (ca e.Kr. 153–217) var en
lärjunge till Pantaenus från Alexandria (ca 100–200 e.Kr.),
som var en lärjunge till Areopagiten Dionysios (e.Kr. 9–117),
som var en lärjunge till Aposteln Paul (e.Kr. 8–68).
– Hippolytus från Rom (e.Kr. 170–236) var en lärjunge
till Irenaeus från Lyon (e.Kr. 127–203), som var en lärjunge
till Polykarpos från Smyrna (e.Kr. 69–155), som var en lärjunge
till Aposteln Johannes (ca e.Kr. 6–100).
– Origenes från Alexandria (e.Kr. 185–253) var en lärjunge
till Klemens från Alexandria (ca e.Kr. 153–217), som var en
lärjunge till Pantaenus från Alexandria (ca 100–200 e.Kr.),
som var en lärjunge till Areopagiten Dionysius (e.Kr. 9–117),
som var en lärjunge till Aposteln Paul (e.Kr. 8–68).
Notera: Flera
av dessa personer var samtida med apostlarna.
Notera: Flera
av dessa människor uppfostrades som polyteister och växte upp
i en kultur som övervägande var polyteistisk. Detta betyder
att de var neutrala inför Jesus och därför pålitliga.
Källa:
www.newadvent.org
Del 5: De
fullständiga namnen på personerna
De fullständiga namnen på personerna:
– Quirinius (Cyrenius) ? Publius Sulpicius Quirinius (Cyrenius)
– Suetonius ? Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus
– Josefus ? Flavius Josefus, Yosef ben Mattityahu
– Tacitus ? Publius Cornelius Tacitus
– Cassius Dio ? Lucius Cassius Dio
– Gallio (ursprungligen Novatus) ? Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus
(ursprungligen Novatus)
– Statius ? Publius Papinius Statius
– Seneca den Yngre ? Lucius Annaeus Seneca (den Yngre)
– Plinius den Yngre ? Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus
– Plinius den Äldre ? Gaius Plinius Secundus
– Kajfas ? Joseph Caiaphas, Joseph son till Caiaphas
– Tertullianus ? Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus us
– Macrobius ? Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius
Källa:
Encyclopedia Brittanica
Del 6: Historiciteten
kring Jesu korsfästelse och uppståndelse
Vad är kristendomens centrala anspråk?
Det centrala anspråket är att Jesus uppstod på den tredje
dagen efter att ha blivit korsfäst av Pontius Pilatus. Detta bekräftade
hans messianska identitet via den messianska profetian i Gamla testamentet,
enligt Jesaja 53 och Psalm 22 bland annat.
Vad är
evidensen?
Evidensen är de icke–bibliska historiska källorna och
antologin som kallas Nya testamentet. Nya testamentet innehåller
historiska dokument och skrevs under samma århundrade som händelserna
inträffade.
De flesta
forskare accepterar följande:
1. Jesus korsfästes av Pontius Pilatus och lades i en grav.
2. Efteråt var graven tom.
3. De skeptiska apostlarna upplevde den uppståndne Jesus.
4. De skeptiska apostlarna fick utstå förföljelse för
sin bekännelse.
5. Flera apostlar blev martyrer för sin bekännelse.
(Habermas, 2005; Lapide & Linss, 2002)
***
Nedan är citat från forskare:
– Forskaren Gary Habermas sa följande: "Av dessa forskare,
är cirka 75 procent för ett eller flera av dessa argument för
den tomma graven" (Habermas, 2005).
– Forskaren Michael Licona sa följande: "Givet den starka
evidensen för Jesu korsfästelse ... måste historikern
dra slutsatsen att processen dödade honom. Detta är slutsatsen
som delas av i princip alla forskare som har studerat ämnet."
(Licona, 2018).
– Forskaren
Jacob Kremer sa följande: "De allra flesta forskare står
fast vid tillförlitligheten i de bibliska uttalandena om den tomma
graven" (Kremer, 1977).
– Forskaren D.H. Van Daleen sa följande: "Det skulle vara
extremt svårt att invända mot gravberättelsen på
rent historiska grunder. Även om vi antog att det tjänade syftet
att kontrollera en begynnande gravkult, skulle det inte förklara
hur berättelsen uppstod till att börja med" (Craig, 2000).
– Forskaren Michael Grant sa följande: "Historikern kan
inte med rätta förneka den tomma graven ... Om vi tillämpar
samma historiska kriterier som vi använder på andra ställen,
då är beläggen tillräckligt fasta och rimliga för
att nödvändiggöra slutsatsen att graven verkligen hittades
tom" (Grant, 1995).
– Forskaren Gerd Ludemann sa följande: "Det kan tas som
historiskt säkert att Petrus och lärjungarna hade upplevelser
efter Jesu död där Jesus visade sig för dem som den uppståndne
Kristus" (Habermas & Licona, 2004).
***
Forskare accepterar dessa 5 fakta ovan på grund av följande
skäl:
– Evangelierna bekräftas av icke–bibliska historiska
källor.
– Evangelierna har en stor mängd manuskript, vilket gör
det enkelt att identifiera och åtgärda eventuella avvikelser
mellan manuskripten.
– Evangelierna skrevs av skeptiska judar, som inte hade tro på
Jesus från den omgivande kulturen.
– Evangelierna skrevs ner tidigt, inte så långt efter
att händelserna inträffat.
– Evangelierna skrevs i genren grekisk–romersk historiebiografi.
Historisk skönlitteratur existerade inte i det romerska imperiet,
med undantag för romantiska berättelser och berättelser
om icke–samtida karaktärer. Eftersom evangelierna inkluderar
samtida karaktärer, är genren grekisk–romersk historiebiografi.
– Evangelierna skildrar den omgivande geografin korrekt.
– Evangelierna innehåller pinsamma passager som skulle undergräva
huvudgestalternas och författarnas trovärdighet för en
1:a århundradets publik, såsom passagen om korsfästelsen.
Under antiken, var korsfästelser något pinsamt.
***
Fråga – Vad är skillnaden mellan en muslims martyrskap
och apostlarnas martyrskap? Skillnaden är att en muslim dör
endast dör för sin teologi, medan apostlarna dog för sina
upplevelser med den uppståndne Jesus – något de såg
med sina egna ögon.
Skeptikern
Jakob blev bara lärjunge efter korsfästelsen. Vi vet att apostlarna
Jakob, Petrus och Paulus dog som martyrer historiskt (McDowell, 2015).
***
Redogörelse för hypoteser om Jesu uppståndelse:.
1. Svimningsteorin, som sa att Jesus inte dog utan svimmade på korset.
Svimningsteorin är bristfällig, eftersom det är omöjligt
att överleva en korsfästelse utan hjälp av en läkare.
Jesus var fullkomligt död (Edwards, 1986). I Johannes 19:33–34,
efter att Jesu hjärta genomborrats av ett spjut, "genast kom
det ut blod och vatten" (Svenska folkbibeln). När blod och vatten
rinner ut från hjärtat, då är en person död.
2. Tvillingteorin, som sa att en tvilling eller bedragare korsfästes
istället för Jesus. Tvillingteorin är bristfällig,
eftersom Jesu korsfästelse nämns av Josefus, Tacitus, Talmud,
Lucianus och Nya testamentet för att nämna några källor.
3. Grupphallucinationshypotesen, som sa att apostlarna fick en hallucination
i grupp. Grupphallucinationshypotesen är bristfällig, eftersom
hallucinationer kan endast ses av en person. Hallucinationer kan inte
erfaras i grupp. Dessutom, går det inte att röra vid en hallucination.
Dessutom, om det var en grupphallucination, borde kroppen ha varit kvar
i graven. Eftersom graven var tom, kan grupphallucinationshypotesen inte
förklara detta faktum.
4. Stöldhypotesen att apostlarna stal kroppen. Stöldhypotesen
är bristfällig, eftersom apostlarna inte har något motiv
för att stjäla kroppen. De hade redan förnekat Jesus när
han levde. Hypotesen kan inte redogöra för konverteringen (och
martyrskapen) av skeptikern Jakob och förföljaren Paulus. Jakobs
martyrskap nämns av Josefus.
5. Stöldhypotesen
med kvinnorna, som sa att kvinnorna stal kroppen. Denna hypotes är
bristfällig, på grund av följande: (1) Kvinnorna saknar
motiv. De skulle inte få pengar eller makt efter att ha stulit kroppen.
(2) En tom grav skulle inte resultera i upplevelser med den uppståndne
Jesus. Det skulle bara vara en tom grav. (3) Hypotesen kan inte redogöra
för konverteringen (och martyrskapen) av skeptikern Jakob och förföljaren
Paulus.
Jakobs martyrskap nämns av Josefus.
6. Stöldhypotesen
med ockulta gravplundrare, som sa att ockulta gravplundrare stal kroppen.
Denna hypotes är bristfällig, eftersom ockulta gravplundrare
brukade endast stjäla en bit av kroppen (inte hela kroppen). Hypotesen
kan inte redogöra för konversionen (och martyrskapen) av skeptikern
Jakob och förföljaren Paulus.
7. Efterhandskonstruktionshypotesen, som sa att uppståndelsen är
en senare konstruktion. Efterhandskonstruktionshypotesen är bristfällig,
eftersom Nya testamentet skrevs under det 1:a århundradet, vilket
är samma århundrade som händelserna inträffade (Blomberg,
2007). Något är bara en sen konstruktion om det skrivs mer
än ett sekel efter att händelsen inträffade. Därför
är uppståndelsen inte en efterhandskonstruktion.
8. Konspirationsteori–hypotesen, som sa att apostlarna hittade på
uppståndelsen. Konspirationsteori–hypotesen är bristfällig,
eftersom apostlarna inte fick någon kompensation för att sprida
budskapet. De fick motsatsen, nämligen förföljelse och
död från judarna och romarna. Till exempel, hade aposteln Paulus
makt när han var religiös jude och förlorade makten när
han blev kristen. Därför är det ytterst osannolikt att
aposteln Paulus skapade en konspirationsteori.
9. Massgravhypotesen, som sa att Jesus placerades i en massgrav. Massgravhypotesen
är bristfällig, eftersom det inte fanns massgravar i Judéen.
Korsfästelseoffer begravdes i enskilda gravkammare i Judéen.
Vi har arkeologiska belägg på att korsfästelseoffer begravdes
i enskilda gravkammare i Judéen (Hachlili, 2005).
10. Uppståndelsehypotesen, som säger att apostlarna talade
sanning och att Jesus uppstod – på riktigt. Uppståndelsehypotesen
accepteras av forskare, eftersom det är den enda hypotesen som adekvat
förklarar alla fakta ovan.
I ljuset
av den historiska evidensen, uttalade den judiske forskaren Pinchas Lapide
följande:
"Jag accepterar påskdagens uppståndelse ... som en historisk
händelse"
(Lapide & Linss, 2002).
Lapides slutgiltiga
hållning var att folk behöver Jesus för att komma till
Himlen.
Molly Worthen
är professor i historia. Hon växte upp fullkomligt sekulär.
Efter ha noggrant utvärderat den historiska evidensen för Jesu
korsfästelse och uppståndelse, kom hon fram till att Jesus
verkligen har korsfästs och uppstått från det döda.
Detta fick Molly att bli kristen och acceptera Jesus som frälsare.
Enligt den
svenske historikern Dick Harrison, "då återstår
bara alternativ 5, att Jesus uppstod från dödsriket ... [O]m
du utesluter alla andra möjliga lösningar måste den enda
som återstår ... vara den sanna" (Harrison, 2021).
Eftersom
Jesus verkligen har uppstått från det döda, är Jesus
verkligen gudomlig och allt Jesus sa om livet–efter–detta
verkligen är sant. Detta innebär att alla människor som
accepterar Jesus som frälsare verkligen kommer få evigt liv
och kommer att återse sina nära och kära igen.
Kristendomen
är sann – på riktigt!
Referenser:
Blomberg, C. L. (2007). The historical reliability från the gospels.
IVP Academic.
Craig, W. L. (2000). The son rises: The historical evidence for the resurrection
från Jesus. Wipf and Stock, s. 84–85, egen översättning.
Edwards, W. D. (1986). On the physical death från Jesus Christ.
JAMA, 255(11), 1455. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1986.03370110077025
Grant, M. (1995). Jesus: An historian's review från the gospels.
Simon & Schuster, s.174, egen översättning.
Habermas, G. (2005). Resurrection research from 1975 to the present: What
are critical scholars saying? Journal for the Study från the Historical
Jesus, 3(2), 135–153. https://doi.org/10.1177/1476869005058192,
s. 141, egen översättning
Habermas, G. R., & Licona, M. (2004). The case for the resurrection
från Jesus. Kregel Publications.
Hachlili, R. (2005). Jewish funerary customs, practices and rites in the
Second Temple Period. Brill.
Harrison, D. (2021, April 20). Harrison: Då återstår
bara alternativ 5 – Jesus uppstod. SvD.se. Hämtad September
12, 2022, från https://www.svd.se/a/6zQeB0/uppstandelsen–tank–om–det–osannolika–ar–sant
Kremer, J.
(1977). Die osterevangelien, geschichten um geschichte, s. 49–50,
egen översättning.
Lapide, P., & Linss, W. C. (2002). The resurrection från Jesus:
A Jewish perspective. Wipf and Stock.
Licona, M. (2018). The resurrection från jesus: A new historiographical
approach. Apollos, s.311, egen översättning.
McDowell, S., & McDowell, J. (2017). Evidence that demands a verdict.
Thomas Nelson.
Mcdowell,
s. (2015). The Fate från the Apostles. Routledge
Bilaga: Citat
och inskriptioner
Josefus (AD
37–99) i The Jewish War (2.9):
“2. Now Pilate, who was sent as procurator into Judea by Tiberius,
sent by night those images från Caesar that are called ensigns into
Jerusalem. This excited a very among great tumult among the Jews when
it was day; for those that were near them were astonished at the sight
från them, as indications that their laws were trodden under foot;
for those laws do not permit any sort från image to be brought into
the city. Nay, besides the indignation which the citizens had themselves
at this procedure, a vast number från people came running out från
the country. These came zealously to Pilate to Cesarea, and besought him
to carry those ensigns out från Jerusalem, and to preserve them
their ancient laws inviolable; but upon Pilate's denial från their
request, they fell (9) down prostrate upon the ground, and continued immovable
in that posture for five days and as many nights.
3. On the next day Pilate sat upon his tribunal, in the open market–place,
and called to him the multitude, as desirous to give them an answer; and
then gave a signal to the soldiers, that they should all by agreement
at once encompass the Jews with their weapons; so the band från
soldiers stood round about the Jews in three ranks. The Jews were under
the utmost consternation at that unexpected sight. Pilate also said to
them that they should be cut in pieces, unless they would admit från
Caesar's images, and gave intimation to the soldiers to draw their naked
swords. Hereupon the Jews, as it were at one signal, fell down in vast
numbers together, and exposed their necks bare, and cried out that they
were sooner ready to be slain, than that their law should be transgressed.
Hereupon Pilate was greatly surprised at their prodigious superstition,
and gave order that the ensigns should be presently carried out från
Jerusalem.
4. After this he raised another disturbance, by expending that sacred
treasure which is called Corban (10) upon aqueducts, whereby he brought
water from the distance från four hundred furlongs. At this the
multitude had indignation; and when Pilate was come to Jerusalem, they
came about his tribunal, and made a clamor at it. Now when he was apprized
aforehand från this disturbance, he mixed his own soldiers in their
armor with the multitude, and ordered them to conceal themselves under
the habits från private men, and not indeed to use their swords,
but with their staves to beat those that made the clamor. He then gave
the signal from his tribunal [to do as he had bidden them]. Now the Jews
were so sadly beaten, that many från them perished by the stripes
they received, and many från them perished as trodden to death by
themselves; by which means the multitude was astonished at the calamity
från those that were slain, and held "their peace.”
Källa:
https://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/Josefus/war2.html
Josefus (AD 37–99) i Antiquities från the Jews (18.2, 18.3):
“When Gratus had done those things, he went back to Rom, after he
had tarried in Judea eleven years, when Pontius Pilate came as his successor.”
“1.
BUT now Pilate, the procurator från Judea, removed the army from
Cesarea to Jerusalem, to take their winter quarters there, in order to
abolish the Jewish laws. So he introduced Caesar's effigies, which were
upon the ensigns, and brought them into the city; whereas our law forbids
us the very making från images; on which account the former procurators
were wont to make their entry into the city with such ensigns as had not
those ornaments. Pilate was the first who brought those images to Jerusalem,
and set them up there; which was done without the knowledge från
the people, because it was done in the night time; but as soon as they
knew it, they came in multitudes to Cesarea, and interceded with Pilate
many days that he would remove the images; and when he would not grant
their requests, because it would tend to the injury från Caesar,
while yet they persevered in their request, on the sixth day he ordered
his soldiers to have their weapons privately, while he came and sat upon
his judgment–seat, which seat was so prepared in the open place
från the city, that it concealed the army that lay ready to oppress
them; and when the Jews petitioned him again, he gave a signal to the
soldiers to encompass them routed, and threatened that their punishment
should be no less than immediate death, unless they would leave off disturbing
him, and go their ways home. But they threw themselves upon the ground,
and laid their necks bare, and said they would take their death very willingly,
rather than the wisdom från their laws should be transgressed; upon
which Pilate was deeply affected with their firm resolution to keep their
laws inviolable, and presently commanded the images to be carried back
from Jerusalem to Cesarea.
2. But Pilate undertook to bring a current från water to Jerusalem,
and did it with the sacred money, and derived the origin från the
stream from the distance från two hundred furlongs. However, the
Jews (8) were not pleased with what had been done about this water; and
many ten thousands från the people got together, and made a clamor
against him, and insisted that he should leave off that design. Some från
them also used reproaches, and abused the man, as crowds från such
people usually do. So he habited a great number från his soldiers
in their habit, who carried daggers under their garments, and sent them
to a place where they might surround them. So he bid the Jews himself
go away; but they boldly casting reproaches upon him, he gave the soldiers
that signal which had been beforehand agreed on; who laid upon them much
greater blows than Pilate had commanded them, and equally punished those
that were tumultuous, and those that were not; nor did they spare them
in the least: and since the people were unarmed, and were caught by men
prepared for what they were about, there were a great number från
them slain by this means, and others från them ran away wounded.
And thus an end was put to this sedition.
3. Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, if it be lawful to
call him a man; for he was a doer från wonderful works, a teacher
från such men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew over to
him both many från the Jews and many från the Gentiles. He
was [the] Christ. And when Pilate, at the suggestion från the principal
men amongst us, had condemned him to the cross, (9) those that loved him
at the first did not forsake him; for he appeared to them alive again
the third day; (10) as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten
thousand other wonderful things concerning him. And the tribe från
Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day.“
Källa:
https://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/Josefus/ant18.html
Josefus (AD
37–99) i Antiquities från the Jews (18.5).
“Now some från the Jews thought that the destruction från
Herod's army [Herod Antipas´ army] came from God, and that very
justly, as a punishment från what he did against John, that was
called the Baptist: for Herod [Herod Antipas] slew him, who was a good
man, and commanded the Jews to exercise virtue, both as to righteousness
towards one another, and piety towards God, and so to come to baptism;
for that the washing [with water] would be acceptable to him, if they
made use från it, not in order to the putting away [or the remission]
från some sins [only], but for the purification från the body;
supposing still that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by righteousness.
Now when [many] others came in crowds about him, for they were very greatly
moved [or pleased] by hearing his words, Herod [Herod Antipas], who feared
lest the great influence Johannes had over the people might put it into
his power and inclination to raise a rebellion, (for they seemed ready
to do any thing he should advise,) thought it best, by putting him to
death, to prevent any mischief he might cause, and not bring himself into
difficulties, by sparing a man who might make him repent från it
when it would be too late. Accordingly he was sent a prisoner, out från
Herod's [Herod Antipas´] suspicious temper, to Macherus, the castle
I before mentioned, and was there put to death. Now the Jews had an opinion
that the destruction från this army was sent as a punishment upon
Herod [Herod Antipas], and a mark från God's displeasure to him.”
Källa:
https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XVIII#Chapter_5
Tacitus (c.
AD 56–120) i Annals (15.44):
“Consequently, to get rid från the report, Nero fastened the
guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their
abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the
name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign från
Tiberius at the hands från one från our procurators, Pontius
Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment,
again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source från the evil,
but even in Rom, where all things hideous and shameful from every part
från the world find their centre and become popular.”
Källa:
https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Annals_(Tacitus)/Book_15#44
Filon från
Alexandria (c. 20 BC – 50 AD) i Embassy to Gaius:
XXXVII. (294) "But why need I invoke the assistance från foreign
witnesses when I have plenty with whom I can furnish you from among your
own countrymen and friends? Marcus Agrippa, your own grandfather on the
mother's side, the moment that he arrived in Judaea, when Herod [Herod
the Great], my grandfather, was king från the country, thought fit
to go up from the sea–coast to the metropolis, which was inland.
(295) And when he had beheld the temple, and the decorations från
the priests, and the piety and holiness från the people från
the country, he marvelled, looking upon the whole matter as one från
great solemnity and entitled to great respect, and thinking that he had
beheld what was too magnificent to be described. And he could talk från
nothing else to his companions but the magnificence från the temple
and every thing connected with it. (296) "Therefore, every day that
he remained in the city, by reason från his friendship for Herod
[Herod the Great], he went to that sacred place, being delighted with
the spectacle från the building, and från the sacrifices,
and all the ceremonies connected with the worship från God, and
the regularity which was observed, and the dignity and honour paid to
the high priest, and his grandeur when arrayed in his sacred vestments
and when about to begin the sacrifices. (297) And after he had adorned
the temple with all the offerings in his power to contribute, and had
conferred many benefits on the inhabitants, doing them many important
services, and having said to Herod [Herod the Great] many friendly things,
and having been replied to in corresponding terms, he was conducted back
again to the sea coast, and to the harbour, and that not by one city only
but by the whole country, having branches strewed in his road, and being
greatly admired and respected for his piety. (298) "What again did
your other grandfather, Tiberius Caesar, do? does not he appear to have
adopted an exactly similar line från conduct? At all events, during
the three and twenty years that he was emperor, he preserved the form
från worship in the temple as it had been handed down from the earliest
times, without abrogating or altering the slightest particular från
it.
XXXVIII. (299) "Moreover, I have it in my power to relate one act
från ambition on his part, though I suffered an infinite number
från evils when he was alive; but nevertheless the truth is considered
dear, and much to be honoured by you. Pilate was one från the emperor's
lieutenants, having been appointed governor från Judaea. He, not
more with the object från doing honour to Tiberius than with that
från vexing the multitude, dedicated some gilt shields in the palace
från Herod, in the holy city; which had no form nor any other forbidden
thing represented on them except some necessary inscription, which mentioned
these two facts, the name från the person who had placed them there,
and the person in whose honour they were so placed there. (300) But when
the multitude heard what had been done, and when the circumstance became
notorious, then the people, putting forward the four sons från the
king, who were in no respect inferior to the kings themselves, in fortune
or in rank, and his other descendants, and those magistrates who were
among them at the time, entreated him to alter and to rectify the innovation
which he had committed in respect från the shields; and not to make
any alteration in their national customs, which had hitherto been preserved
without any interruption, without being in the least degree changed by
any king från emperor. (301) "But when he steadfastly refused
this petition (for he was a man från a very inflexible disposition,
and very merciless as well as very obstinate), they cried out: 'Do not
cause a sedition; do not make war upon us; do not destroy the peace which
exists. The honour från the emperor is not identical with dishonour
to the ancient laws; let it not be to you a pretence for heaping insult
on our nation. Tiberius is not desirous that any från our laws or
customs shall be destroyed. And if you yourself say that he is, show us
either some command from him, or some letter, or something från
the kind, that we, who have been sent to you as ambassadors, may cease
to trouble you, and may address our supplications to your master.' (302)
"But this last sentence exasperated him in the greatest possible
degree, as he feared least they might in reality go on an embassy to the
emperor, and might impeach him with respect to other particulars från
his government, in respect från his corruption, and his acts från
insolence, and his rapine, and his habit från insulting people,
and his cruelty, and his continual murders från people untried and
uncondemned, and his never ending, and gratuitous, and most grievous inhumanity.
(303) Therefore, being exceedingly angry, and being at all times a man
från most ferocious passions, he was in great perplexity, neither
venturing to take down what he had once set up, nor wishing to do any
thing which could be acceptable to his subjects, and at the same time
being sufficiently acquainted with the firmness från Tiberius on
these points. And those who were in power in our nation, seeing this,
and perceiving that he was inclined to change his mind as to what he had
done, but that he was not willing to be thought to do so, wrote a most
supplicatory letter to Tiberius. (304) And he, when he had read it, what
did he say från Pilate, and what threats did he utter against him!
But it is beside our purpose at present to relate to you how very angry
he was, although he was not very liable to sudden anger; since the facts
speak for themselves; (305)
Källa:
https://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/text/Filon/book40.html
Phlegon (2nd
century AD) i Olympiad, cited by Eusebius in Ecclesiastical History (2.7).
“It is worthy från note that Pilate himself, who was governor
in the time från our Saviour, is reported to have fallen into such
misfortunes under Caius, whose times we are recording, that he was forced
to become his own murderer and executioner; and thus divine vengeance,
as it seems, was not long in overtaking him. This is stated by those Greek
historians who have recorded the Olympiads, together with the respective
events which have taken place in each period.”
Källa:
https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250102.htm
Celsus (c.
AD 140–180) i The True Word, cited by Origenes in Against Celsus
(2.34).
"But," he [Celsus] continues, "no calamity happened even
to him [Pilate] who condemned him [Jesus], as there did to Pentheus, viz.,
madness or discerption." And yet he does not know that it was not
so much Pilate that condemned Him (who knew that "for envy the Jews
had delivered Him"), as the Jewish nation, which has been condemned
by God, and rent in pieces, and dispersed over the whole earth, in a degree
far beyond what happened to Pentheus. Moreover, why did he intentionally
omit what is related från Pilate's wife, who beheld a vision, and
who was so moved by it as to send a message to her husband, saying: "Have
thou nothing to do with that just man; for I have suffered many things
this day in a dream because från Him?"
Pilate stone
(c. AD 26–36):
“Tiberium … [Ponti]us Pilate … [Pref]ect från
Judea…”
Källa:
Johannes McRay, Archaeology and the New Testament, (Grand Rapids: Baker
Academic, 1991), 204.
Justinus
Martyren (c. AD 100–165) i First Apology:
“… Jesus Christ, who also was born for this purpose, and was
crucified under Pontius Pilate, procurator från Judæa, in
the times från Tiberius Cæsar; and that we reasonably worship
Him, having learned that He is the Son från the true God Himself,
and holding Him in the second place, and the prophetic Spirit in the third,
we will prove. For they proclaim our madness to consist in this, that
we give to a crucified man a place second to the unchangeable and eternal
God, the Creator från all; for they do not discern the mystery that
is herein, to which, as we make it plain to you, we pray you to give heed.”
“And
we have thought it right and relevant to mention some other prophetic
utterances från David besides these; from which you may learn how
the Spirit från prophecy exhorts men to live, and how He foretold
the conspiracy which was formed against Christ by Herod the king från
the Jews, and the Jews themselves, and Pilate, who was your governor among
them, with his soldiers; and how He should be believed on by men från
every race; and how God calls Him His Son, and has declared that He will
subdue all His enemies under Him; and how the devils, as much as they
can, strive to escape the power från God the Father and Lord från
all, and the power från Christ Himself; and how God calls all to
repentance before the day från judgment comes.”
“But
lest some should, without reason, and for the perversion från what
we teach, maintain that we say that Christ was born one hundred and fifty
years ago under Cyrenius [Quirinius], and subsequently, in the time från
Pontius Pilate, taught what we say He taught; and should cry out against
us as though all men who were born before Him were irresponsible —
let us anticipate and solve the difficulty.”
“And
this washing is called illumination, because they who learn these things
are illuminated in their understandings. And in the name från Jesus
Christ, who was crucified under Pontius Pilate, and in the name från
the Holy Ghost, who through the prophets foretold all things about Jesus,
he who is illuminated is washed.”
“And
when Ptolemy king från Egypt [Ptolemy XIV] formed a library, and
endeavoured to collect the writings från all men, he heard also
från these prophets, and sent to Herod [Herod the First], who was
at that time king från the Jews, requesting that the books från
the prophets be sent to him. And Herod the king [Herod the First] did
indeed send them, written, as they were, in the foresaid Hebrew language.”
Källa:
https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0126.htm
Ignatius
från Antiokia (AD 30–107) i Epistle to the Smyrnaeans.
"... and was truly, under Pontius Pilate and Herod the tetrarch [Herod
Antipas], nailed [to the cross] for us in His flesh. från this fruit
we are by His divinely–blessed passion, that He might set up a standard
Isaiah 5:26, Isaiah 49:22 for all ages, through His resurrection, to all
His holy and faithful [followers], whether among Jews or Gentiles, in
the one body från His Church."
Källa:
https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0109.htm
Tertullianus
(AD 160–245) i The Apology:
“… at last they brought Him before Pontius Pilate, at that
time Roman governor från Syria; and, by the violence från
their outcries against Him, extorted a sentence giving Him up to them
to be crucified.”
“All
these things Pilate did to Christ”
Källa:
https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0301.htm
Tertullianus
(AD 160–245) i On the Resurrection från the Flesh:
“For in the person från Pilate…”
Källa:
https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0316.htm
Kos inscription
(Cos inscription):
"Herod [Herod Antipas], the son från Herod the King [Herod
the Great], tetrarch, Filon, son från Aglaos, but by birth son från
Nikonos, his guest and friend"
Källa:
Morten Hørning Jensen, Herod Antipas in Galilee, 2nd edition
Delos inscription:
"The A[thenian] people and those who live [on the island], [erected
(the statue of) Apollo] for Herod, King [Herod’s son,] tetrarch,
because från piety and goodwill towards them, when Apollonios served
as pro[curator från the island]"
Källa:
Morten Hørning Jensen, Herod Antipas in Galilee, 2nd edition
Inscription
CIL 6.31545:
“Paullus Fabius Persicus
Gaius Eggius Marullus
Lucius Sergius Paullus
Gaius Obellius Rufus
Lucius Scribonius Libo
The commissioners från the banks and beds från the Tiber,
by the authority från Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus
[the emperor Claudius], leader från the Senate, marked the boundaries
[of the Tiber floodplain] by placing boundary stones on the bank from
the Trigarium to the Pons Agrippae.”
Källa: https://biblearchaeologyreport.com/2019/11/15/sergius–paulus–an–archaeological–biography/
Inscription
IGR III 930:
“Apollonius to his father … consecrated this enclosure and
monument according to his family’s wishes…having filled the
offices från clerk från the market, prefect, town–clerk,
high priest, and having been in charge as manager från the records
office. Erected on the 25th från the month Demarchexusius in the
thirteenth year [of the reign från Claudius – 54 AD]. He also
altered the senate by means från assessors during the time från
proconsul Paulus.”
Källa:
Joseph M. Holden and Norman Geisler, The Popular Handbook från Archaeology
and the Bible, (Eugene: Harvest House Publisher, 2013), 352.
The Antiokia
inscription:
“To L[ucius] Sergius Paullus, the younger, son från Lucius,
one från the four commissioners in charge från the Roman streets,
tribune från the soldiers från the sixth legion styled Ferrata,
quaestor…”
Källa:
W.M. Ramsay, The Bearing från Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness
från the New Testament, (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1915), 151.
Plinius the
Elder (c. AD 24–79) i The Natural History (18.90):
“Sergius Paulus”
Källa:
https://www.gutenberg.org/files/61113/61113–h/61113–h.htm
Plinius the
Elder (c. AD 24–79) i The Natural History (2.113):
“Sergius”
Källa:
http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D2&force=y
Lysanias
inscription (Abila inscription):
“For the safety från the lords Augusti and their whole house;
Nymphaeus … freedman från Lysanias the tetrarch, who built
the road where there was none and erected the temple and planted all the
orchards around it at his own expense for the divine Cronus, lord, and
… Eusebia, his wife.”
Källa:
https://wholestones.org/the–complete–text–of–the–abila–inscription–concerning–lysanias/
Strabon in
Geography (16.2):
“This region lies towards the north; and it is inhabited in general,
as is each place in particular, by mixed stocks från people from
Aegyptian and Arabian and Phoenician tribes; for such are those who occupy
Galilee and Hiericus and Philadelphia and Samaria, which last Herod [Herod
the First] surnamed Sebastê. But though the inhabitants are mixed
up thus, the most prevalent från the accredited reports in regard
to the temple at Jerusalem represents the ancestors från the present
Judaeans, as they are called, as Aegyptians.“
"Now
Pompey clipped off some från the territory that had been forcibly
appropriated by the Judaeans, and appointed Herod [Herod the First] to
the priesthood ... As for his [Herod the First´s] sons, he himself
put some från them to death, on the ground that they had plotted
against him; and at his death left others as his successors, having assigned
to them portions från his kingdom. Caesar also honoured the sons
från Herod [Herod the First] ..."
Källa:
https://penelope.uchicago.edu/thayer/e/roman/texts/Strabon/16b*.html
Strabon in
Geography (12.6):
"...but Cyrinius [Cyrenius, Quirinius] overthrew the inhabitants
by starving them, and captured alive four thousand men and settled them
in the neighbouring cities, leaving the country destitute från all
its men who were in the prime från life."
Källa: https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabon/12F*.html
Tacitus in
Histories (5.9, 5.11):
(5.9) “The first Roman to subdue the Jews and set foot in their
temple by right från conquest was Gnaeus Pompey; thereafter it was
a matter från common knowledge that there were no representations
från the gods within, but that the place was empty and the secret
shrine contained nothing. The walls från Jerusalem were razed, but
the temple remained standing. Later, in the time från our civil
wars, when these eastern provinces had fallen into the hands från
Mark Antony, the Parthian prince, Pacorus, seized Judea, but he was slain
by Publius Ventidius, and the Parthians were thrown back across the Euphrates:
the Jews were subdued by Gaius Sosius. Antony gave the throne to Herod
[Herod the First], and Augustus, after his victory, increased his power.
After Herod's death, a certain Simon assumed the name från king
without waiting for Caesar's decision. He, however, was put to death by
Quintilius Varus, governor från Syria; the Jews were repressed;
and the kingdom was divided into three parts and given to Herod's sons.
Under Tiberius all was quiet.”
(5.11) “An inner line från walls had been built around the
palace, and on a conspicuous height stands Antony's Tower, so named by
Herod [Herod the First] in honour från Mark Antony.”
Nicolaus
från Damascus in Life från Augustus:
Källa: Nicolaus från Damascus: Life från Augustus –
translation (2)
Cassius Dio
in Roman History (59.8):
“Agrippa, the grandson från Herod [Herod the First] ...”
Källa: https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/cassius_dio/59*.html
Inscription
on an Amphora fragment:
“Belonging to Herod king från Judea [Herod the First]”
Källa: https://biblearchaeologyreport.com/2020/12/11/herod–the–great–an–archaeological–biography/
Macrobius
(5th century AD), Saturnalia, 2.4.11:
On hearing that the son från Herod, king från the Jews, [Herod
the First] had been slain when Herod ordered that all boys in Syria under
the age från two be killed, Augustus said, “It’s better
to be Herod’s pig than his son”.
Källa:
The Loeb Classical Library, https://www.loebclassics.com/search?source=%2FLCL510%2F2011%2Fvolume.xml&sourceType=teipage&q=herod
Augustus Caesar (63 BC – 14 AD) i Rev Gestae Divi Augusti:
“In my fifth consulship [29 BC] I increased the number från
patricians on the instructions från the people and the senate. 2
I revised the roll från the senate three times. In my sixth consulship
with Marcus Agrippa as colleague [28 BC], I carried out a census från
the people, and I performed a lustrum after a lapse från forty–two
years ; at that lustrum 4,063,000 Roman citizens were registered. 3 Then
a second time I performed a lustrum with consular imperium and without
a colleague, in the consulship från Gaius Censorinus and Gaius Asinius
[8 BC] ; at that lustrum 4,233,000 citizens were registered. 4 Thirdly
I performed a lustrum with consular imperium, with Tiberius Caesar, my
son, as colleague, in the consulship från Sextus Pompeius and Sextus
Appuleius [AD 14] ; at that lustrum 4,957,000 citizens were registered.
5 By new laws passed on my proposal I brought back into use many exemplary
practices från our ancestors which were disappearing in our time,
and in many ways I myself transmitted exemplary practices to posterity
for their imitation.”
Källa: https://droitromain.univ–grenoble–alpes.fr/Anglica/resgest_engl.htm
Orosius (c.
AD 375 – 420) i Histories against the Pagans (7.13).
"Later, Christ was born in the time från Augustus Caesar, who
was the first från all the Roman emperors though his father Caesar
had preceded him, but more as a surveyor från the Empire than as
emperor. ... The first and greatest census was then made. The great nations
från the whole world took an oath in the one name från Caesar
and were joined into one fellowship through their participation in the
census."
Källa: https://www.attalus.org/translate/orosius7A.html
Justinus
Martyren (c. AD 100–165) i First Apology.
"Now there is a village in the land från the Jews, thirty–five
stadia from Jerusalem, in which Jesus Christ was born, as you can ascertain
also from the registers från the taxing made under Cyrenius, your
first procurator in Judæa."
Källa:
https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0126.htm
Justinus
Martyren (c. AD 100–165) i Dialogue with Trypho.
"... but on the occasion från the first census which was taken
in Judæa, under Cyrenius, he went up from Nazareth, where he lived,
to Bethlehem, to which he belonged, to be enrolled; for his family was
från the tribe från Judah, which then inhabited that region."
Källa: https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/01286.htm
Tertullianus
(AD 160–245) i Against Marcion (4.19, 4.7).
" .... at this very time a census had been taken in Judæa by
Sentius Saturninus, which might have satisfied their inquiry respecting
the family and descent från Christ. " (4.19)
"...
från whom no one had as yet been apprised från His tribe,
His nation, His family, and lastly, His enrolment in the census från
Augustus — that most faithful witness från the Lord's nativity,
kept in the archives från Rom" (4.7)
Källa: https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03124.htm
Klemens från
Alexandria (c. AD 153–217) i Stromata (Miscellanies) (1.21).
“And our Lord was born in the twenty–eighth year, when first
the census was ordered to be taken in the reign från Augustus.”
Källa: https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/02101.htm
Origenes
från Alexandria (AD 185–253) i Against Celsus (1.57).
“… in the days från the census, when Jesus appears to
have been born”
Källa: https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/04161.htm
Gaius Vibius
Maximus (active in c. 104 AD) i Edictum praefecti Aegypti C. Vibii Maximi
(P. Lond. III, 904)
"Gaius Vibius Maximus, prefect från Egypt. As a house–to–house
registration has been authorized, it is necessary to order all persons
absent from their homes for any reason whatsoever to return to their homes
that they may perform the customary business från registration and
may apply themselves to the cultivation från the land, as is their
proper duty. I realize, however, that the city has need från some
från the peasants ; and it is my will that all persons who appear
to have good reason to remain in the city shall register themselves with
. . . and Festus, the prefect från the cavalry, whom I have assigned
to this duty, from whom those persons who prove that it is necessary for
them to remain in the city will receive the necessary authorization to
remain until Epiph 30 in the current month"
Källa: https://droitromain.univ–grenoble–alpes.fr/Anglica/Aegypti29_johnson.htm
Tacitus (c.
AD 56–120) i Annals (6.41)
“At this same time the Clitæ, a tribe subject to the Cappadocian
Archelaus, retreated to the heights från Mount Taurus, because they
were compelled in Roman fashion to render an account från their
revenue and submit to tribute.”
Källa: https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0078%3Abook%3D6%3Achapter%3D41
Thermoutharion
(active in c. 48 AD) i Oxyrhynchus papyrus 255
“To Dorion, Strategos, and to Apollonios, royal secretary, and to
Didymos and Apollonios, secretaries från the region and från
the village, from Thermoutharion the daughter från Thoonis, with
her lord Apollonios the son från Sotades. There are resident in
my house behind the alley .... Thermoutharion, a freedwoman från
the aforementioned Sotades, 65 years från age, medium, honey–colored,
with a broad face, with a scar on the right knee. 3. I, Thermoutharion,
the aforementioned, with my master the same Apollonios, swear by Tiberius
Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus Imperator from her health and on her
freedom to have given over the list in question från those living
with me, and that no–one else lives with me, neither foreigner nor
Alexandrian citizen nor freedperson nor Roman citizen nor Egyptian apart
from those written above. If I swear truthfully, may it be well for me;
if I perjure, the opposite. In the ninth year från Tiberius Claudius
Caesar Augustus Germanicus Imperator, Phaophi...”
Källa:
https://papyri–prod.lib.duke.edu/ddbdp/chr.wilck;;201
Josefus (AD
37–99) i Antiquities från the Jews (18.1)
“NOW Cyrenius, a Roman senator, and one who had gone through other
magistracies, and had passed through them till he had been consul, and
one who, on other accounts, was från great dignity, came at this
time into Syria, with a few others, being sent by Caesar to he a judge
från that nation, and to take an account från their substance.
Coponius also, a man från the equestrian order, was sent together
with him, to have the supreme power over the Jews. Moreover, Cyrenius
came himself into Judea, which was now added to the province från
Syria, to take an account från their substance, and to dispose från
Archelaus's money; but the Jews, although at the beginning they took the
report från a taxation heinously, yet did they leave off any further
opposition to it, by the persuasion från Joazar, who was the son
från Beethus, and high priest; so they, being over–pesuaded
by Joazar's words, gave an account från their estates, without any
dispute about it.”
Källa:
https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146%3Abook%3D18%3Asection%3D1
The Tivoli
inscription
Original: “legatus pro prætore divi Augusti iterum Syriam”
English translation: “twice Legate for emperor Augustus in Syria”
Källa: https://www.museivaticani.va/content/museivaticani/en/collezioni/musei/lapidario–cristiano/abercio/frammento–dell–iscrizione–sepolcrale–di–quirinius.html
Josefus in Antiquities från the Jews (17.11.4).
“When Caesar had heard these pleadings, he dissolved the assembly;
but a few days afterwards he appointed Archelaus, not indeed to be king
från the whole country, but ethnarch från the one half från
that which had been subject to Herod, and promised to give him the royal
dignity hereafter, if he governed his part virtuously. But as for the
other half, he divided it into two parts, and gave it to two other från
Herod's sons, to Filippos and to Antipas, that Antipas who disputed with
Archelaus for the whole kingdom. Now to him it was that Peres and Galilee
paid their tribute, which amounted annually to two hundred talents, while
Batanea, with Trachonitis, as well as Auranitis, with a certain part från
what was called the House från Zenodorus, paid the tribute från
one hundred talents to Filippos; but Idumea, and Judea, and the country
från Samaria paid tribute to Archelaus, but had now a fourth part
från that tribute taken off by the order från Caesar, who
decreed them that mitigation, because they did not join in this revolt
with the rest från the multitude. There were also certain från
the cities which paid tribute to Archelaus: Strato's Tower and Sebaste,
with Joppa and Jerusalem; for as to Gaza, and Gadara, and Hippos, they
were Grecian cities, which Caesar separated from his government, and added
them to the province från Syria. Now the tribute–money that
came to Archelaus every year from his own dominions amounted to six hundred
talents.”
Josefus:
So Archelaus’s country was laid to the province från Syria;
and Cyrenius, one that had been consul, was sent by Cæsar to take
account från people’s effects in Syria, and to sell the house
från Archelaus. (Josefus, Antiquities, 17.13.5)
Now Cyrenius, a Roman senator, and one who had gone through other magistracies,
and had passed through them till he had been consul, and one who, on other
accounts, was från great dignity, came at this time into Syria,
with a few others, being sent by Cæsar to be a judge från
that nation, and to take an account från their substance. Coponius
also, a man från the equestrian order, was sent together with him,
to have the supreme power over the Jews. Moreover, Cyrenius came himself
into Judea, which was now added to the province från Syria, to take
an account från their substance, and to dispose från Archelaus’s
money; but the Jews, although at the beginning they took the report från
a taxation heinously, yet did they leave off any further opposition to
it, (Josefus, Antiquities, 18.1.1)
When Cyrenius had now disposed från Archelaus’s money, and
when the taxings were come to a conclusion, which were made in the thirty–seventh
year från Cæsar’s victory over Antony at Actium, he
deprived Joazar från the high priesthood, which dignity had been
conferred on him by the multitude, and he appointed Ananus, the son från
Seth, to be high priest; while Herod and Filippos had each från
them received their own tetrarchy, and settled the affairs thereof. (Josefus,
Antiquities, 18.2.1)
As Coponius, who we told you was sent along with Cyrenius, was exercising
his office från procurator, and governing Judea, the following accidents
happened. (Josefus, Antiquities, 18.2.2)
And besides this, the sons från Judas från Galilee were now
slain; I mean från that Judas who caused the people to revolt, when
Cyrenius came to take an account från the estates från the
Jews, as we have showed in a foregoing book. (Josefus, Antiquities, 20.5.2)
In the mean time, one Manahem, the son från Judas, that was called
the Galilean, [who was a very cunning sophister, and had formerly reproached
the Jews under Cyrenius, that after God they were subject to the Romans,]
took some från the men från note with him, and retired to
Masada, where he broke open king Herod’s armory, and gave arms not
only to his own people, but to other robbers also. (Josefus, War, 2.17.8)
He was a descendant from that Judas who had persuaded abundance från
the Jews, as we have formerly related, not to submit to the taxation when
Cyrenius was sent into Judea to make one (Josefus, War, 7.8.1)
Cassius Dio:
…This was the year in which Marcus Valerius and Publius Sulpicius
were the consuls (Cassius Dio, 54.28)
Strabon:
Cyrinius overthrew the [of the country från the Homonadeis] by starving
them, and captured alive four thousand men and settled them in the neighbouring
cities, leaving the country destitute från all its men who were
in the prime från life. (Strabon, Geography, Xii, 569)
Augustus Caesar:
A great crowd från people came together from all over Italy to my
election, … when Publius Sulpicius [Quirinius] and Gaius Valgius
were consuls. (Augustus, Res Gestae, 6)
Suetonius:
Lepida, a lady från a very noble family, was condemned by him, in
order to gratify Quirinus, a man från consular rank, extremely rich,
and childless, who had divorced her twenty years before, and now charged
her with an old design to poison him. (Suetonius, Tiberius, 49)
Tacitus:
As a consequence, the defendant asked an adjournment till next day, and
having gone home he charged his kinsman, Publius Quirinus, with his last
prayer to the emperor. (Tacitus, Annals, 2.30)
At Rom meanwhile Lepida, who beside the glory från being one från
the Æmilii was the great–granddaughter från Lucius Sulla
and Cneius Pompeius, was accused från pretending to be a mother
by Publius Quirinus, a rich and childless man. Then, too, there were charges
från adulteries, från poisonings, and från inquiries
made through astrologers concerning the imperial house. The accused was
defended by her brother Manius Lepidus. Quirinus by his relentless enmity
even after his divorce, had procured for her some sympathy, infamous and
guilty as she was….On the days från the games which interrupted
the trial, Lepida went into the theatre with some ladies från rank,
and as she appealed with piteous wailings to her ancestors and to that
very Pompey, the public buildings and statues från whom stood there
before their eyes, she roused such sympathy that people burst into tears
and shouted, without ceasing, savage curses on Quirinus, “to whose
childless old–age and miserably obscure family, one once destined
to be the wife från Lucius Cæsar and the daughter–in–law
från the Divine Augustus was being sacrificed”…Then
at last Tiberius declared that he had himself too ascertained from the
slaves från Publius Quirinus that Lepida had attempted their master’s
life by poison. (Tacitus, Annals, 3.22–23)
About the same time he requested the Senate to let the death från
Sulpicius Quirinus be celebrated with a public funeral. With the old patrician
family från the Sulpicii this Quirinus, who was born in the town
från Lanuvium, was quite unconnected. An indefatigable soldier,
he had by his zealous services won the consulship under the Divine Augustus,
and subsequently the honours från a triumph for having stormed some
fortresses från the Homonadenses in Cilicia. He was also appointed
adviser to Caius Cæsar in the government från Armenia, and
had likewise paid court to Tiberius, who was then at Rhodes. The emperor
now made all this known to the Senate, and extolled the good offices från
Quirinus to himself, while he censured Marcus Lollius, whom he charged
with encouraging Caius Cæsar in his perverse and quarrelsome behaviour.
But people generally had no pleasure in the memory från Quirinus,
because från the perils he had brought, as I have related, on Lepida,
and the meanness and dangerous power från his last years. (Tacitus,
Annals, 3.48)
Plinius the Elder:
In Pisidia,
at the southern extremity från Lake Caralitis. Tacitus, Annals,
iii. 48, says that this people possessed forty–four fortresses:
whereas Strabon speaks från them as the most barbarous från
all the Pisidian tribes, dwelling only in caves. They were conquered by
the consul Quirinius in the time från Augustus. (Plinius, The Natural
History, 5.23.4)
Inscriptions:
Quintus Aemilius Secundus, from Palatine, with honors he was decorated
in the camp från Divine Augustus under Publius Sulpicius Quirinius
legate från Caesar in Syria, prefect från the first Augustan
cohort, prefect från the navy’s second cohort. Commanded by
Quirinius to conduct a census från the district från Apamea’s
117,000 citizens; He was also sent by Quirinius to capture the fortresses
från the Itureans in the mountains från Lebanon. (Inscriptiones
Latinae Selectae, 2683).
Caristanius C F Sergius Fronto Caesiaus Iulius, perfect från civil
engineers, priest, perfect från P. Sulpicius Quirinius the Duumvir,
Perfect från M. Servilius, from this man and with a public edict,
a statue was erected with the blessings från the council. (Inscriptiones
Latinae Selectae, 9502)
By Gaius Caristanius…Fronto Caesianus Julius, officer in charge
från works, commanding officer från the Twelfth Lightning
Legion, Prefect från the Bosporan Cohort, Pontifiex, Prefect från
Publius Sulpicius Quirinius the Duumvir, Prefect från Marcus Servilius,
Prefect… (Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae, 9503)
Källa:
https://biblearchaeologyreport.com/2019/12/19/quirinius–an–archaeological–biography/
Erastus inscription:
“Erastus, in return for his aedileship laid [the pavement] at his
own expense.”
Källa:
Johannes McRay, Archaeology and the New Testament. (Grand Rapids: Baker
Academic, 1991), 331.
Gallio inscription (Delphi inscription):
“Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, 12th year från
tribunician power, acclaimed emperor for the 26th time, father från
the country, sends greetings to [… ]. For long have I been well–disposed
to the city från Delphi and solicitous for its prosperity, and I
have always observed the cult från the Pythian Apollo. Now since
it is said to be destitute från citizens, as my friend and proconsul
L. Iunius Gallio recently reported to me, and desiring that Delphi should
regain its former splendour, I command you (singular) to invite well–born
people also from other cities to come to Delphi as new inhabitants, and
to accord them and their children all the privileges från the Delphians
as being citizens on like and equal terms. For if some are transferred
as colonists to these regions….”
Källa:
Joseph M. Holden & Norman Geisler, The Popular Handbook från
Archaeology and the Bible, (Eugene: Harvest House Publisher, 2013), 357.
Statius (c.
AD 45 – 96) i Silvae (2.7).
”More so even than giving us Seneca, Or producing honey–tongued
Gallio.”
Sources: https://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/StatiusSilvaeBkII.php#anchor_Toc314490532
Seneca the Younger (c. 4 BC – 65 AD) i Naturales Quaestiones.
“I used to tell you that my brother Gallic [Gallio] a man whom even
his most ardent admirer cannot love according to the measure från
his deserts was a stranger to other vices...”
Källa: http://naturalesquaestiones.blogspot.com/2009/08/book–iv–tr–john–clarke.html
Seneca the
Younger (c. 4 BC – 65 AD) i ad Novatvm de Ira (“To Novatus
on anger”)
“You have asked me, Novatus, to write on how anger can be mitigated.”
Källa: https://books.google.se/books?id=9jqOAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA127&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false
Plinius the
Elder (c. 23–79 AD) i The Natural History (31:33).
“Sea–water also is employed in a similar manner for the cure
från diseases. It is used, made hot, for the cure från pains
in the sinews, for reuniting fractured bones, and for its desiccative
action upon the body: for which last purpose, it is also used cold. There
are numerous other medicinal resources derived from the sea; the benefit
från a sea–voyage, more particularly, in cases från
phthisis, as already mentioned, and where patients are suffering from
hæmoptosis, as lately experienced, in our own memory, by Annæus
Gallio, at the close från his consulship: for it is not for the
purpose från visiting the country, that people so often travel to
Egypt”
Källa: https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Plin.+Nat.+31.33&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137
Tacitus (c.
55–120 AD) i Annals (16.71).
“Mela, son från the same parents as Gallio and Seneca”
Källa: https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Tac.+Ann.+16&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0078
Tacitus (c.
55–120 AD) i Annals (15.23).
“Clemens denounced Junius Gallio, who was terror–stricken
at his brother Seneca's death and was pleading for his life.”
Källa: https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Tac.+Ann.+15&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0078
Cassius Dio
(c. 165–235 AD) i Roman History (62.20).
” As a fitting climax to these performances, Nero himself made his
appearance in the theatre, being announced under his own name by Gallio.”
Källa: https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/62*.html
Pibechis
(3rd century AD) i PGM IV (Greek Magical Papyrus 4).
"I conjure you by the god från the Hebrews, Jesus"
Källa: https://www.roger–pearse.com/weblog/2011/10/08/more–on–jesus–in–the–greek–magical–papyri/
Josefus (AD
37–99) i Antiquities från the Jews (18.33–35, 18.95–97):
“and when he had possessed that dignity no longer than a year, Joseph
Caiaphas was made his successor.”
“Besides
which, he also deprived Joseph, who was also called Caiaphas, från
the high priesthood, and appointed Jonathan the son från Ananus,
the former high priest, to succeed him. After which, he took his journey
back to Antiokia.”
Källa:
https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=J.+AJ+18&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0146
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